Book Report and Book Review

Book reports and book reviews are the two ways to know about a published book. While book reports intend to report the existence or release of a book, the book review offers a thorough analysis of the contents of the book.

Book Report

As Barzun and Graff have pointed out a report is an important means of communicating the contents of a publication to a wider audience. Book reports serve the purpose of making the readers aware of the existence of particular literature which has just been realised by the publishers. Book reports normally appear in the literary columns of national and international dailies and even of vernacular newspapers. Not frequently, book reports are also found in the pages of journals and magazines. Book reports are also available on the internet. The book report acquaints the interested reader and students about the existence of a particular publication addressing a particular theme.

The contents of a book report give a short description of the author’s profile, the title, the theme its divisions into chapters. It also presents the general outlay of the publication. It also reports on the contents which can be used either by the layman or the interested scholar. Book reports play a valuable role as Arthur Marwick points out in the dissemination of publications. Book reports are different from Book reviews. The reporter does not claim any authority of knowledge about the theme handled by the author of the book. There is no criticism or comparative study involved. The release or existence of the work is just reported.  

Book Review

The book review is an indispensable part of the critical evaluation of new knowledge sources that are produced at a rapid speed. A book review is different from a book report as it does not merely proclaim the existence of a work. The book review is a scholarly critique of a publication undertaken by an authority, on his individual initiative, or on behalf of an institution. The book review evaluates the new publication or edition in relation to existing literature acclaiming the scholarship of the author or condemning the mediocrity of the work.

The book review systematically analyses a new addition to the corpus of knowledge by evaluating, comparing, and criticising in the light of received historiographical knowledge. The reviewer sharply peruses the book, examining the presentation of the theme and ideas, its print, grammar, sentence construction, errors in spelling, cover design, and more importantly the knowledge it claims to have produced.

The book reviewer in reputed publications can raise the acceptability of the book to popular heights and bring fame and fortune to the author. At the same time, a book review can destroy the intellectual claim of a new author and diminish the popular consumption of the work.

The scholar, researcher, student, or the interested layman is today confronted by a boom in publications or a flood in information through the print media. He/she is unable to keep pace with the speed at which new works are produced. The reader has of necessity to be selective. He/she has to be guided and directed toward good and standard publications. He/she must not be misled by old wine in a new bottle or spurious works claiming to be scholarly. The book reviewer plays the role of an erudite guide. Academicians, the scholarly world, and lay readership have come to depend greatly on critics of known intellectual integrity who review books for reputed journals, magazines, newspapers, etc.

It is the book reviewer who directs the innocent as well as the discerning reader to the new publications in bookstalls or libraries. The reviewer helps the reader in discovering ‘a must-read book’ or ‘indispensable read’. Society needs the book review as a dependable guide to a genuine scholarship at a time when it is inundated by publications of various hues and shades making tall claims.

Review of Literature

A review of literature is an essential part of the research process. The term ‘literature’ here, refers to the collection of all the scholarly writings on a particular topic. These writings can be in the format of books, periodicals, journal articles, conference proceedings, dissertations, online articles, etc. After the selection of a research topic, the next step in the planning phase of a research study is the review of the literature. It simply means becoming familiar with the existing literature, and a way to understand the existing knowledge on a particular topic.

The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a valuable contribution to almost every operational step. In the initial stages of research, it helps to establish the theoretical roots, clarity of ideas, and methodological practices on the present research topic. Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate the knowledge base of the researcher and helps to integrate his/her findings with the existing body of knowledge. It also helps to compare the findings of the researcher with other studies. A review of literature helps to identify the sources which were already used and interpreted.

Literature review in historical research is intended to understand and analyse the historical background, different historical perspectives, and different historiographical accounts on a particular topic. Historical reviews are focused on examining historical research on a particular topic from its starting point to its scholarly evolution over the course of time. The purpose is to place research in a historical context and to establish a linkage with existing knowledge.

In historical research, a literature review has many functions. The important among them are:

• To provide an understanding of the historiographical context of the present study
• To highlight exemplary studies on the topic
• To summarise, synthesise and analyse the arguments of different historians/authors
• To compare and contrast different authors’ views within the existing research
• To Identify research gaps and conflicts in the previous studies
• To justify the need for the present research problem
• To provide a theoretical and conceptual background for the present study
• To establish relationships between previous studies/theories
• To place the present research within the historiographical context

Identification of landmarks and any seminal publications relating to the research topic is the first step toward the review of the literature. The literature on a topic can be found in two types – the major works and the works based on them. Further, literature related to a particular topic may deal with two types of information: (1) Universal and (2) Specific. The initial purpose of a literature review is to establish the uniqueness of a research topic by placing its roots in the existing studies. A literature review with depth and breadth demonstrates comprehensive knowledge of the literature and confirms that the researcher is up-to-date with existing knowledge on the present research topic.

For a better review, the researcher needs effective and critical reading. While presenting the review, the information obtained from different books and journals needs to be sorted under the main themes and theories. The agreements and disagreements among the authors should be highlighted. Various arguments should be substantiated with specific quotations and citations from the literature. It is also important to identify unanswered questions or gaps. The literature review can be organised thematically, chronologically, by the historiographical trend, by the development of historical events, ideas, and theories, etc.

Reviewing the literature is a continuous process. It begins before a research problem is finalised and continues until the report is finished. Literature reviews can help and guide the researcher in an appropriate direction by answering several questions related to the topic area. It enables the researcher to position his/her research in the broader academic community.

Discourse Analysis

The concept of discourse in simple terms refers to written and spoken communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence. In humanities and social sciences, the term discourse describes a formal way of thinking that can be expressed through language. Discourse is ‘a group of ideas or patterned way of thinking which can be identified in textual and verbal communications. The philosopher of history Michael Stanford, in his A Companion to the Study of History defines ‘history as discourse’.

Discourse analysis is a research method for studying written and spoken language in relation to its social context. It also analyses how meanings are established, used, challenged, and changed in written and oral communications. It is an interpretive method of analyzing textual and verbal communication. Discourse analysis is commonly understood as the analysis of the interrelationships between language, power, and society. It is also called critical discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis aims to understand:

ü  How language functions

ü  How language is used in real-life situations

ü  How language use relates to its social, political, and historical context

ü  How meaning is constructed in different contexts

ü  How people communicate in a specific context

ü  How values, beliefs, and assumptions are communicated

ü  How communication is used to achieve social goals

Steps in Discourse Analysis

There are many different approaches and techniques to conduct discourse analysis. A general structure is given below:

         1         Begin with a clearly defined research question

         2         Select a range of material that is appropriate to answer the research question

         3         Establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced

         4         Thoroughly examine the content of the material for themes and patterns

         5         Examine the function and meaning of the language used to convey the themes or patterns

         6         Draw conclusions

Michel Foucault and Discourse Analysis

Michel Foucault is one of the most influential postmodern thinkers, who made popular contributions to the analysis of the knowledge-power relationship. His major works consist of:

ü  History of Madness and Civilization;

ü  The Order of Things;

ü  Archaeology of Knowledge;

ü  Discipline and Punish; and

ü  History of Modern Sexuality

Foucault's work gave the terms 'discursive practices' and 'discursive formation' to the analysis of particular institutions and their ways of establishing orders of truth in a given society. Through his various case studies, Foucault analyzed modern institutions and their ways of establishing orders of truth. He proved that power, knowledge, and truth are interconnected. He examined the discourses of madness, clinic, sexuality, and punishment from the perspective of the power-knowledge relationship. Through this he analysed the way in which discourse distinguishes between legal and illegal killing; or between proper and improper sexual conduct; or between the sane and the insane, the normal and the abnormal.

Foucault considered that the meaning of language is conditioned by social structure, culture, and discourses. Language is related to knowledge in various ways. Language, therefore, is the primary object studied by discourse theory. Discourse analysis emphasizes analysis of the power in-built into social relations. He considered that:

§  By shaping our perceptions, discourse generates the world of our everyday life

§  Discourse generates all forms of knowledge and truth.

§  By analysing the discourse, one can find the speaker’s identity.

§  Power and knowledge are inter-related

§  Power is always present and can both produce and constrain the truth.

§  Discourse affects the person's perspective and it is impossible to avoid discourse.

Foucault’s discourse analysis can be used to explore the power-knowledge-truth relations through the language and its various structures.  It helps to understand the way in which societies organize knowledge and truth. Thus, discourse analysis is about the people and their social worlds. 

Exposition

It is the final stage in historical research and a part of the concluding operation. It is the process of the presentation of research work in the most attractive and interesting way. It represents the actual writing of the thesis. It is the presentation of historical facts in an intelligent, intelligible, interesting, and knowledgeable way. Facts must be presented in a fascinating way. Originality, clarity, and lucidity are the hallmarks of exposition. The ideas are to be arranged in a logical order, and imagination plays a key role in exposition. The presentation of sources, its analysis, and interpretation are depended on the nature of the research problem.

The Writing Plan

A well-outlined plan for presenting the thesis must be adopted. The text of the thesis is the most important section in the organization of a research report. The quality of the report is mainly examined. It is the original production of the researcher. The report of the main body serves the function of demonstrating the competence of the researcher. The whole thesis should be divided into chapters and further sub-themes. The general format in presenting the textual body is:

Introductory Part: It consists essentially of the statement of research inquiry. The main purpose of this chapter is to indicate the need and scope of the study. It is reported in the past tense form of work completed. The problem objectives, hypotheses, cauterization, and limitations of the study are to be reported precisely.

Review of Related Literature: The existing knowledge on the topic must be examined. The review chapter is devoted to the development of the problem statement or the object of the inquiry. It is the balancing chapter of the research report.

Key Chapters: Chapters can be divided into thematically, problematically, or any other method suited for the present research problem. In the chapters, subtitles can be placed to present different aspects of the study. This is the place in which the researcher raises his arguments. These chapters can provide the opportunity to analyse the available sources to reach new interpretations. It also provides the opportunity to establish historical truth regarding the present research problem. Generalization, conceptualization, and theorization can be framed in these chapters.  

Conclusion: This part concludes the study. It also posts the important findings of the study and also presents the thread for further research in the field. 

The Writing Style

A language is a tool for writing. Historians tend to write in ordinary language that ordinary people can read and understand. This is certainly a charm of the craft of history. Historians try to write in a language that captures the spirit of the historical period, event, or character, that appeals to a contemporary audience. The language of the historian is normally simple, direct, and comprehensible. However, there may be a complexity of evidence or arguments. Most people can read and enjoy history because it uses ordinary language. Using ordinary language well is, therefore, one of the historian’s most important tools. Research writing is communication between the researcher and the reader. Hence, attention should be paid to writing the research report. It should be clear in presentation, easy to read, and accurate in statements. The following points must be kept in mind at the time of writing the thesis:

• Readability and the flow of the presentation
• Clarity in arguments
• Command over language
• Avoidance of superfluous language
• Logical paragraphing
• Correct use of punctuations and quotations
• Technical terms should be explained
• Keep the lucidity of the explanation
• Avoidance of complex sentences
• Avoidance of colloquial language
• Avoidance of personal porous as I, We, You, Me, My, Our and Us

The writing must be focused on a way to find out the answers to the pre-set objectives.  

Generalisation

Generalisation is a process of framing principles, theories, and concepts by establishing the relation between facts, and it is a part of the exposition. The process of generalisation begins with the grouping of the facts. Facts must be grouped, arranged, and organised according to its similarities and dissimilarities. The next step is called serialisation, which is linking up the events according to the research plan. Reasoning and further interpretation of the facts is the next step. It helps the researcher to organise his facts in a defined manner. Interpretation promotes communication and understanding. Establishing a connection or relation between the facts is the next stage of generalisation. This factual connection enables the researcher to outline general schemes or principles. It helps the researcher to make general statements and formulates concepts and theories. A generalization must be based upon a balanced approach.

Synthetic Operation

The synthetic operation is concerned with joining, grouping, arranging, explaining, and interpreting the data. It broadly involves:

1. Determining particular facts
2. Grouping of facts
3. Constructive reasoning

The word “synthesis” means the combining of separate parts, elements, etc. to form a complex whole. In historical research, the term “synthetic operation” refers to “joining, grouping, arranging, explaining and interpreting the data so as to make the narrative meaningful and interesting”. It is a process whereby several ideas are grouped and arranged in a rational and meaningful manner.

Arrangement of Facts

Grouping or arranging or classifying facts is a vital step in the synthetic operation. Facts are to be grouped according to some definite plan. The selection, the grouping, and the arrangement of facts are the sequential steps in the process of synthesis. Historical facts may be grouped on the basis of chronology, topic, geography, personality, institution, problem and concept, and so on. Each method has its own merits and demerits. However, the best system of the grouping of facts is the combination of both the chronological and thematic systems.

1.   Chronological Arrangement

Chronology is the very basis of the historical structure. It is the backbone of history. Without dates, the true causal link would be missed. The chronological arrangement of sources is one of the popular methods of historical narration. Historians always use broad chronological divisions as ancient, medieval, and modern. The chronological arrangement put forward a defined sequential organisation of facts. However, this arrangement often reduces history to a mere list of events.

2.   Topical/Thematic Arrangement

Historical facts can also be arranged on the basis of the subject. When facts are arranged on the basis of topics or themes, it becomes thematic. This arrangement helps the historian to present his facts beyond the chronological boundaries. Further, this provides more readability to the historical narrations. The topical arrangement needs the mixing up of several facts together to present the topic. However, this arrangement often neglects the significant change that had taken place over a period of time.

3.   Other Arrangements

Geographical or regional arrangements of facts may be used in the studies on different localities.  Personality based arrangement is useful to present biographical studies. Similarly, institution-based arrangements can be used to present social and economic problems. Historical facts can also be grouped on the basis of the development of certain concepts.

Constructive Reasoning

Constructive reasoning plays a significant role in the synthetic operation. In the absence of adequate facts, the reasoning is essential to fill any gaps. The reasoning may be positive or negative. It is the process through which a historian attempts to draw valid conclusions. There are two types of reasoning:

Positive reasoning: Positive reasoning allows historians to draw certain inferences from the facts established. In this process, historians establish a fact with the support of a document and infer some other facts which the document has not to mention. From the study of a given set of facts, it is possible to infer the existence of the other connected facts. Thorough knowledge of particular facts is necessary for positive thinking.

Negative reasoning: In this process, a historian infers a point in the absence of any definite indication of that point in the records. Negative reasoning is thus an assumption of the existence of a fact, which cannot be found in the records. It can be assumed that some facts may not be recorded or may be lost over a period of time. Similarly, certain facts are not recorded by the contemporary writer because of fear of authority. Thus formulating certain facts without any recorded documents may be unavoidable in historical research.

The researcher must be careful and cautious while drawing inferences on the basis of constructive reasoning. When several inferences point in the same direction, it can be taken as a fact. Similarly, some of its gaps can be filled with positive assumptions. In short, constructive reasoning is the most efficient tool for historical construction.

Internal Criticism

The Historical criticism of the sources is one of the most important duties of a historian in research. It is part of the analytical operation in the historical method. Source criticism helps the historian to find out a reliable account of the past. The aim of historical criticism is to establish the authenticity and reliability of a historical document. There are two levels of source criticism namely: External Criticism and Internal Criticism. The external criticism aims to find out the authenticity of the document. On the other hand, internal criticism aims to establish the credibility of the content of the document.

Internal Criticism

Internal criticism or higher criticism is the technique of testing the reliability of the information found in a document. It is concerned with the authenticity of the information and its purpose is to establish the trustworthiness of the contents of the document. Internal criticism is used to detect and determine whether the document contains errors or lies. It is the fundamental and significant task in which the historical narratives are reconstructed. Moreover, internal criticism is concerned with the interpretation of the sources and is also known as interpretative criticism. Hence it is also called Hermeneutics – the science of interpretation. If heuristic deals with the external aspects of a document, hermeneutics deal with the internal aspects of the document.

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics, or ‘the theory of interpretation,’ is a field in contemporary Western Philosophy. It deals with principles and processes instrumental in the course of interpretation, especially the interpretation of texts. Thus, hermeneutics is an art of discovering meaning. Etymologically, the word, ‘hermeneutics’ is derived from the Greek verb hermeneuein and the noun hermeneia, to mean ‘to interpret’ or ‘interpretation’. Mythologically, it is related to Hermes, the Greek winged god, whose chief function was to interpret the messages of the Gods for human beings. Traditionally, it is linked to the rules for the interpretation of texts, especially the sacred and legal ones. The important hermeneutical thinkers are Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm Dilthey, Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur.

Key Themes in Hermeneutics

Explanation: The focus of the explanation is on the validity of textual meaning. In explanation, a text can be treated like a window or like a mirror. In window reading, one sees through a text in order to explore its nature and origins, without any influences. In mirror reading, one stands before a text in order to understand it from within a particular context and is guided by personal and social interests. Both methods have positive and negative aspects.

Understanding: In order to understand the whole text, it is essential to understand the individual parts of the text. Similarly, in order to understand the parts, it is important to understand the whole idea of the text. Thus, for a better understanding of the text, the connected thinking between the whole and the parts of the text is necessary.

Trust and Suspicion: While interpreting a text, the hermeneutical trust operates from an understanding standpoint. On the other hand, the hermeneutical suspicion operates from a critical perspective. The blend of these two is necessary.

Method of Internal Criticism

More than anything else, the process of internal criticism requires a healthy doubt and a critical and analytical mind. While approaching a historical source, doubt is an inevitable thing. This doubt helps the historian to find out the most reliable account of the past. The critical approach guards the researcher against errors. The content of the document should be critically analyzed. The document should be divided into several parts. Each trace is separately analyzed and tested. The critical method should be applied to know the nature of historical facts and to test their authenticity.

In order to establish the credibility of the content of a document, the researcher has to investigate several aspects like:

• The character of the document

• The literal and real meaning of the text

• The knowledge of the author

• Competence and reliability of the author

• Author’s personal connection with the event, which he explains

• Author’s source of information in producing the document

• The influences prevalent at the time of writing

• The elements of personal bias

• The elements of deliberate and intentional errors

• Corroborating evidence

Positive and Negative Interpretative Criticism

Internal criticism involves two operations:

1.   Positive interpretative criticism

The aim of positive interpretative criticism is to understand the literal and real meaning of the document. Words have two senses: literal and real. The literal is the grammatical meaning of the word i.e. "according to the letter". But words are not always used in the literal sense alone. The word may be used in a figurative or metaphorical sense also. The real sense of the word is the significance attached to it by the author or witness. Therefore, one should read the meaning of the word in letter and spirit. Again the language of a people never remains static. It changes from generation to generation and so an understanding of the idioms of the time of the document's origin is quite essential.

Familiarity with the language, linguistic usage, manner of writing and style, changes in expression, etc. are necessary to understand the literal meaning of the text. Similarly, the real meaning concealed in the text must be detected. The real meaning must be separated from the hidden meaning, as grain from the chaff. The researcher should determine the literal sense and the real or the inner meaning of the contents of the document under scrutiny. In short, internal criticism is intended to extract the real meaning of the text from the literal meaning. Its purpose is to know what the author really means by making a particular statement.

2.   Negative interpretative criticism

The aim of the negative interpretative criticism is to determine the element of truth contained in the text. Historian sometimes comes across documents that contradict each other. Hence the need for eliminating statements and facts which are obviously wrong and false is necessary. Negative criticism is concerned with the process of eliminating statements that are obviously false, fabricated, or forged. It is possible that a single statement is a mixture of true and false ideas, and accurate and inaccurate narration.

Errors may be deliberate or intentional. It may be due to several reasons. The author might be the victim of circumstances. Social obligations, religious practices, or political pressures would have led the author to write contrary to his personal convictions. Further, personal preferences, prejudices, and preferences towards events or persons might have influenced the author to deviate from the truth. Similarly, errors of accuracy occur when the source of information is defective. The researchers may be sincere, honest, and faithful but the information he gets may be wrong or defective due to reasons beyond his control. He may pass on the information in good faith without knowing that it is not true. These are committed because the historian is not the observer of events and has to necessarily depend on second-hand accounts.

Hence, negative interpretative criticism also deals with the truthfulness of the author. It examines the circumstances under which the document was written. It deals with the author's official status and his place in society. It investigates the degree of subjectivity and bias of the author. It also examines the sources of the author and his relation to the event that he narrates. Thus, negative criticism inquires not only about the good faith of the author but also the accuracy of the statement he makes.

External and internal criticism is an essential aspect of the historical research method and it is an art by itself. A severe method of source criticism will help to reconstruct a truthful description of the past.

External Criticism

The Historical criticism of the sources is one of the most important duties of a historian in research. It is part of the analytical operation in the historical method. Source criticism helps the historian to find out a reliable account of the past. The aim of historical criticism is to establish the authenticity and reliability of a historical document. There are two levels of source criticism namely: External Criticism and Internal Criticism. The external criticism aims to find out the authenticity of the document. On the other hand, internal criticism aims to establish the credibility of the content of the document.

External Criticism

External criticism, also called lower criticism, determines the authenticity of the source. The method of external criticism is also known as heuristics. The term heuristics is derived from the Greek word heuriskein, which means to find or discover. Heuristics is a technique to detect, trace and locate historical evidence. In another way, it is a method to find out the authenticity of the document. Many historical records lack precise authorship, title, location and dates. Before accepting the document as a valid source, its genuineness must be tested with critical examination. External criticism generally conducts examinations of documents like manuscripts, books, pamphlets, maps, inscriptions and monuments. The problem of authenticity of documents arises more in the case of manuscripts than the printed documents because the printed document has already been authenticated by its author or publisher.

Functions of External Criticism

The functions of external criticism are many. Primarily, external criticism sets three questions to test the authenticity of a document:

• Who produced the document?
• When was it produced?
• Where was it produced?

Through these questions of external criticism, historian tries to establish:

• The authorship of the document
• The period/date/time of the document
• The location/place of the document

Elements of Enquires in External Criticism

1.   Authorship

Authorship is the first question while examining the authenticity of a document. Even anonymous writings can provide useful and important knowledge to a historian. But the discovery of an author’s name will add authenticity to the information. The character, connections and trustworthiness of the author are often reflected in his writings. Thus to identify the author of a document is very important. If the ideas and style do not match or resemble the idea and style of the author it can be safely assumed that they were not the parts of the original manuscript and were forged by the later ones. Moreover, the historian should ask questions like: Is there just one author, or are there several, and whether the name provided in the document is an editor or translator. A few sources may have several individuals who contributed to the fundamental creation and presentation of the work. All these must be considered.

2.   Period/Date/Time

The period of the document must be inquired to determine its authenticity. In modern publications, the year can be found on the book or document on the title page or backside. However, in the old manuscript where the date is absent, it can be found in the language or from the date of birth and death of the author. The archaeologists and numismatists provide valuable assistance to the historians to fix the chronology of ancient remains and also decipher the inscriptions. Extensive knowledge of the period of enquiry is also a prerequisite.

3.   Location/Place

The place of publication of the document must be inquired to determine the authenticity of the document. In modern publications, the place of publication is indicated on the book or document on the title page or backside. However, in the old manuscript where the place is absent, it can be found in the language or from the life of the author.

Highly specialized techniques like carbon dating, linguistic analysis, chemical analysis, etc., are required to authenticate some documents and artefacts.

Other Enquiries

Apart from these basic enquiries, the ‘title of the document’ should be examined to authenticate the document. In edited works and journals, there may be two titles – the title of the edited book/journal and the title of the article. This must be verified. In the case of secondary sources, the details of the publication are also necessary. The name of the publisher/publishing house, place of the publication and year of first publication should be validated. For online resources, it means the URL and retrieved date.  

Some sources may be reproduced and the original document may be lost or not available. In this case, unintentional or deliberately committed textual errors can take place in the subsequent copies of the original documents. These mistakes may be caused by the scribe, typist or printer. This problem can be overcome through the collection and comparison of as many copies of the same documents.

Thus, the process of external criticism allows the historian to establish the authenticity of the document and thereby accept it for higher levels of criticism.