History from Below

 

“History from Below” is an approach in historiography that focuses on the experiences of ordinary people. It highlights the movements and contributions of marginalized and oppressed groups. This approach opposes and challenges the elite and popular histories. It emerged in the mid-20^th century. The important historians associated with this approach are E.P. Thompson, Eric Hobsbawm, and Christopher Hill.

ü  E.P. Thompson: His book, The Making of the English Working Class recovers the voices and struggles of working-class individuals during the Industrial Revolution.

ü  Eric Hobsbawm: His important books in this regard are: Primitive Rebels, Bandits and Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour

Features of “History from Below”

ü History of Common People: This approach focuses on the lives, struggles, perspectives and contributions of ordinary people. It explored the experiences of peasants, workers, women, ethnic minorities, and colonized peoples.

ü  Everyday Life and Culture: This approach examines the everyday life, including family structures, religious practices, and cultural traditions of ordinary people.

ü  Role of Ordinary People in History: This approach shows the role of ordinary people in shaping history.

ü  Oral History and Alternative Sources: Historians of this approach use unconventional sources, such as folk traditions, oral history, life history, local records, diaries, letters and so on.

ü  Interdisciplinary Approach: It combines the sources and methods of sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science.

ü  Criticism of Elite History: It challenges the idea that history is shaped by the elites. They exhibited the role of common people in historical movements.

Thus, this approach influenced women’s history, gender history, subaltern studies, Dalit history and histories of other marginalized groups.     

Arnold J Toynbee and A Study of History

 

Arnold J. Toynbee was a British historian and philosopher of history. He is well known for his work, A Study of History.  In this book, he analyzed the rise and fall of civilizations. He also presented theories to explain his analysis.

A Study of History and Analysis of Civilizations

In his 12-volume book, A Study of History, Toynbee examined the rise and fall of 26 major civilizations. He proposed a cyclical theory of civilization. He argued that Civilizations generally passed through the stages of origin, growth, breakdown and Disintegration. He presented theories to explain the different stages of civilizations.

Origin of the Civilizations - Challenge and Response Theory

Toynbee argues that the origin and development of Civilizations depend on the response to the emerging challenges. He outlines environmental, social, and political challenges that arise in the beginning state of Civilizations. If a civilization successfully responds to these challenges, it grows and develops. The ability to innovate, adapt, and find solutions is crucial. If a civilization fails to adapt, it enters a period of decline.

Creative Minority and Growth of the Civilizations

Toynbee argued that civilizations rise and flourish when a small group of individuals— the creative minority—introduces new ideas, values, and solutions to challenges. The fate of a civilization largely depends on the leadership of this creative minority.

Breakdown of Civilizations

In this stage, the creative minority loses its ability to lead effectively. The failure of creative minority causes internal conflicts and rigid institutions weaken the civilization. This results in the breakdown of the civilization.

Disintegration Stage

This is the final decline stage of a civilization. It marks a period of social unrest, economic decline, and external invasions. This accelerates the collapse and civilization either dissolves completely or is absorbed into a new emerging civilization.

The Role of Religion in Civilization

Toynbee emphasized the role of religion in shaping civilizations. He believed that civilizations are deeply influenced by religion and spirituality. He argued that the most successful civilizations had strong moral and religious foundations. When civilizations abandoned their spiritual values, they often entered decline.

Toynbee’s analysis of civilization inspired later studies on world history, globalization, and the interaction between civilizations.

The Frankfurt School and the Development of Critical Theory

The Frankfurt School was founded in 1923 at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany. Soon it emerged as an intellectual movement and several scholars contributed to it. This school of thought is known for developing Critical Theory. The scholars associated with this school critically examined society, culture, and politics through a Marxist lens. They were inspired by the Marxist philosophy and tried to revise and update it with new insights. The School outlined an interdisciplinary research program that incorporated insights from philosophy, social theory, psychology, political economy, and cultural analysis. They made significant contributions to critical theory, philosophy, sociology, and cultural studies.

Key Intellectuals and their Contributions

• Max Horkheimer: He played a crucial role in developing critical theory. His famous essay, “Traditional and Critical Theory”, critiques the traditional theory and distinguishes it from critical theory. Along with Adorno, he authored the book Dialectic of Enlightenment.
• Theodor Adorno: He is known for his critiques of mass culture, authoritarianism, and Enlightenment rationality. His book Dialectic of Enlightenment (with Horkheimer) argued that modern rationality had led to new forms of oppression.
• Herbert Marcuse: In his work One-Dimensional Man, he focused on the repressive nature of advanced industrial societies. He argued that advanced industrial societies use technology and consumerism to suppress dissent and maintain control.
• Walter Benjamin: He explored the impact of technology on art and culture, emphasizing the revolutionary potential of media.
• Erich Fromm: Analyzed the psychological dimensions of capitalism and authoritarianism.
• Jürgen Habermas: Developed the concept of the public sphere, arguing that democratic societies require open, rational discourse. His work, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962), remains foundational in media studies and political theory.

Development of Critical Theory

Critical Theory is a form of interdisciplinary critique aimed at revealing the hidden power structures that shape society. It is a form of Marxist-inspired social theory that seeks to critique and transform society rather than merely understand it. It was based on Marxism philosophy but also utilized the insights of psychoanalysis, sociology, existential philosophy, and other disciplines. Unlike traditional Marxism, they emphasized culture, ideology, and mass media as essential forces in maintaining capitalist dominance. The Frankfurt School studied how capitalist societies maintained control not just through economics but through ideological domination. Critical theory emphasizes the role of ideology, power, and domination in shaping society. This approach aims at emancipation from all forms of domination and the establishment of reasonable conditions of life. This also aimed to uncover hidden structures of oppression and promote social justice.

Criticism of Capitalism and Enlightenment Rationality

The Frankfurt School analyzed the contradictions of capitalism. They focused on how capitalism maintains inequality, alienation, and exploitation. They also critiqued the Enlightenment tradition. They argued that its emphasis on rationality and progress had been co-opted by capitalist and authoritarian systems, leading to new forms of domination, i.e. the domination through technology, bureaucracy, mass culture, and so on.

Analysis of Mass Culture and the Culture Industry

Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno introduced the concept of the culture industry. They believed that mass culture discourages critical thinking. They argued that mass-produced culture (film, radio, TV, and music) manipulates public consciousness, making individuals passive consumers rather than critical thinkers. They believed that popular culture functioned as a tool for ideological control, reinforcing capitalist and authoritarian values. This critique remains influential in media studies and cultural criticism.

Influence on Sociology and Psychology

Erich Fromm combined Marxist and Freudian ideas to analyze how psychological repression contributed to authoritarian personalities and conformist societies. The Frankfurt School influenced studies on social behavior, ideology, and authoritarianism, notably contributing to research on fascism and mass psychology. The ideas of the Frankfurt School influenced various social movements, including the New Left, student protests of the 1960s, and feminist and anti-colonial struggles.

Interdisciplinary Approach

The Frankfurt School carried out an interdisciplinary approach. They incorporated the insights from philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics, and cultural studies to analyze complex social phenomena. This approach laid the groundwork for later developments in critical theory and cultural studies.

Conclusion

The Frankfurt School brought critical analyses of modernity, capitalism, culture, and authoritarianism. They offered critical tools for understanding and challenging systems of domination. Their work remains a foundation of contemporary critical thought. It continues to shape cultural studies, critical media theory, political science, sociology, and philosophy. Its emphasis on ideological critique, mass culture, and power structures remains relevant in analyzing contemporary issues like digital surveillance, media influence, and neoliberalism.