A Note on Using Chicago Citation Style

The Chicago citation style is the method established by the University of Chicago Press. It is widely used for academic writing in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. A slight modification of the Chicago style is known as Turabian style. Chicago/Turabian style features two basic documentation systems:

1. Notes-Bibliography Style: used in the humanities (literature, history and the arts). It cites the sources as footnote or endnote and gives a full bibliography at the end of the paper.
2. Author-Date style: used in the social, physical, and natural sciences. It cites the sources in the text, in parentheses, by author’s last name and date of publication. These short citations are detailed on the References page at the end of the paper.

(1) Notes-Bibliography Style

The notes-bibliography format combines two components: (a) footnotes or endnotes (b) Bibliography.

Footnotes/ End Notes

• It is a numbered system whereby authorship is acknowledged using a number to represent the reference. The reader can follow this in-text number to the corresponding number in the footnote or endnote.
• Citation numbers should be inserted in superscript to the right of commas and full stops, and to the left of colons and semi-colons.
• The first source cited on the page is “1,” the second source is “2,” and so on. This numbering system resets with each page, and you start over with “1” instead of moving on to “3.”
• In the endnotes, it is formatted in the exact same way, but the numbering reaches from the first to last page, rather than restarting with each new page.
• Cite authors’ names as they appear in the texts. Don’t replace first names with initials unless the names appear this way on the title page of the source.
• If no author is mentioned in the source, organize the entry by the title.
• The first time you cite a source, you will include a full citation. For all subsequent references to that text, your footnote citation will be in abbreviated form. The shortened form consists of the author’s last name, title (shortened if more than four words) and page.
• All footnotes/endnotes must be chronologically numbered.
• If there is no date of the publication, use n.d. (no date).
• If the second reference to a text comes immediately after the first, use “Ibid.” in place of the author’s name and the book title. Include the page number if it is different from that listed in the first reference.

Example for the First Citation:  Author’s name as in the source, Title in Italics and in Headline Style (City of Publication: Publisher, Year), page number if relevant.

Bipan Chandra, Communalism in India (New Delhi: Har Anand, 1998), 123.

Subsequent references to the same text: 

Last name, Title in Shortened Form, page number. (If there is only one source from the author, then Last name and the page number is enough)

Chandra, 123

(If there is more than one source from the author, then Last name, an abbreviated form of title and the page number is needed)

Chandra, Communalism, 123

Bibliography

A bibliography is a list of the full details of all the sources you cited in your paper. In the Chicago style, the bibliography starts on a separate page at the end of your paper and is titled Bibliography. The Bibliography contains details of the sources used in writing your paper and can include works not cited in your paper that you consulted in your research.

• All sources appearing in the Bibliography must be ordered alphabetically by the last name of the first author or title if there is no author is identified.
• Works by the same author/s are listed alphabetically by title. Bibliographies with only one author are ordered chronologically.
• If notes are given as endnotes, then the bibliography is optional because all the sources are cited in notes already. However, many people choose to create a consolidated list of sources.
• If one includes a range of sources, some of which he/she read but did not specifically need to cite for the paper then should call the document a "Selected Bibliography."
• The name of the first author is inverted; subsequent author’s names are given in the form in which they appear in the original source publication.
• The bibliography should be double spaced and intend every line comes after the first line.
• Italics is the preferred format for titles of books, journals, and videos. However, article and chapter titles are not italicised; these are put in double quotation marks.
• Capitalisation within the Chicago style requires all major words to be first letter upper case.

Format of a Bibliography Entry for a Single Authored Book

• Author’s last name followed by a comma
• First name of the author followed by a full stop
• Title of the book in italics and all major words capitalised followed by a full stop
• Location of the publications followed by a colon
• Publisher followed by a comma
• Year of the publication followed by a full stop

Example: Chandra, Bipan. Communalism in India. New Delhi: Har Anand, 1998.

(2) Chicago Author-Date Style

The Chicago Author-Date style is like a mixture of MLA and APA. Just like in MLA, the Chicago Author-Date style inserts a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence, before the period. But the information included in the parenthetical is more like APA: author, date, and page number. There is no punctuation between the author and date, but the date and page number are separated by a comma:

Example: (Chandra 1998, 123).

If the name of the author is given in the text, then the year and the page number are enough.

Example: Bipan Chandra considered the Indian national movement, a passive revolution (1998, 123)

If there are multiple authors with the same last name, include the first initial in the parenthetical citation: (B. Chandra 1998, 123).

If there are multiple essays by the same author and published in the same year, mark them with a letter, like in APA. (Chandra 1998a, 123).

Reference List

The Date-Author system requires a reference list at the end of the paper, like in MLA or APA.

A Note on Using APA Citation Style

APA is the formatting style for the American Psychological Association, which is used in social sciences as well. The APA style uses the author/date in-text citation with the reference list at the end of the research report.

(1) In-text Citation

The APA style uses the in-text citation method similar to the MLA with one additional element. In MLA, the author's last name and the page number is given in the in-text citation. In APA, along with these elements, the year in which the work was published is to be added. The order of information in the parenthetical always goes Author, Year, Page.

Example: (Chandra, 1998, p.123)

A further difference from MLA style is that in MLA, the in-text citation always goes at the end of the sentence, in APA it can be cited wherever it is necessary.

Using in-text citations

• If the author’s name mentioned in the sentence, the year appears in parentheses immediately after author’s name. Example: Chandra (1998) argues that "quotation" (p. 123). The page number always appears immediately after the quoted or referenced material appears. Example: Chandra (1998) argues that the Indian national movement was a passive revolution (p. 54), though there are conflicting views by others.
• If the author’s name doesn’t come in the sentence, give all three elements of information in the parenthetical citation. Example: Indian national movement can be considered as a ‘Passive Revolution’ (Chandra, 1998, p. 54), though there are other conflicting views.
• If there is more than one the author with the same last name, prefix the first initial of the author's first name in the in-text citation as in the case of MLA style Example: (B. Chandra, 1998, p. 123).
• If there are two or more titles by the same author published in the same year, then alphabetically arrange the works by the first major word of the title in the Reference list. The first work will be considered “a”, the second “b” and so on. Add this letter designation to the year in the in-text to show which work is cited. Example: (Chandra, 1998a, p.123)

 (2) Reference List

In APA, the Reference List is a bibliography, just like MLA’s Works Cited. A reference list includes only those references which were actually cited in the text of a research paper. A single-author book can be arranged like:

• Last name of the author followed by a comma
• Author’s first names are NOT included in the entries; include only the initials of the given name(s) followed by a full stop
• Year of the publication in parenthesis followed by a full stop
• Title of the book in italics and sentence case followed by a full stop
• Location of Publication followed by a colon
• Publishing Company followed by a full stop

Example: Chandra, B. (1998). Communalism in modern India. New Delhi: Har Anand.

When compiling a reference list the researcher needs to pay particular attention to the following: (1) Sequence; (2) Punctuation and spacing; (3) Capitalization; and (4) Italicising.

Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the last name of the first author. Items in a reference list should be double-spaced. Indent all lines that come after the first line of a Reference List. This lets the reader know where one citation ends and the next one begins.

Format for Book and Journal Article

Book: Author’s Last name, Initial(s) of the First name. (Year). Title of book. Location: Publisher.

Journal: Author’s Last name, Initial(s) of the First name. (Year). Title of journal article. Title of Journal, Volume number (issue number), page number(s).

A Note on Using MLA Citation Style

MLA is the formatting style of the Modern Language Association. It is generally used in English and humanities. The MLA Handbook outlines a two-level citation method to provide references to a particular source: (i) in-text citation and (ii) Works Cited. It means, when citing a source, the researcher has to include its information in two places.

(i)   In-text Citation

In "in-text citation", a source is cited in the body of the text itself. Generally, an in-text citation is used when a researcher quotes from a source directly. However, the researcher also needs to use an in-text citation any time he/she uses information borrowed from a source, but which is not come in  “common knowledge.” They are used instead of footnotes or endnotes. They are sometimes called parenthetical references because the in-text citation appears in parentheses. It must be given at the end of a sentence. The in-text citation directs the reader to the full citation of the source in the ‘Work Cited’ list given at the end of the research report. The author's last name and the page number are usually given to indicate the location in the source.

Example: If the source is taken from the 123rd page of the book written by Bipan Chandra, the in-text citation will be (Chandra 123)

Various conditions and usages of in-text citations

There are several instances in which the researcher has to make a slight variation in giving in-text citations. Some general conditions are:

• If the text includes the name of the author, (like According to Bipan Chandra or Bipan Chandra argued that or in his book, Bipan Chandra mentions) then give only the page number in the in-text citation. This allows the researcher to keep the references in parentheses as brief as possible. Example: Bipan Chandra defined Indian national movement a ‘passive revolution’. (123)
• If there are two or more titles by the same author, the normal in-text citation may confuse the reader. When the reader looks up the sources at the Works Cited, they will find multiple sources from one author. To avoid this confusion, the researcher must include a shortened version of the author’s title in the in-text citation. Example: (Chandra, Communalism 123)
• If there is more than one author with the same last name, a normal in-text citation may confuse the reader about the authorship. In this case, prefix the first initial of the author's first name in the in-text citation. Example: (B. Chandra 123).
• If there is no author mentioned in the source, the in-text citation would contain an abbreviated title and the page number.

 (ii)  Works Cited

It is the second component of the MLA citation. It is just a bibliography; the list of sources cited in the text. Every single source that contains information used in the text that must be included in the Works Cited. Thus, each entry in the work cited corresponds to an in-text citation. A single author book can be arranged like:

• The last name of the author followed by a comma
• First name of the author followed by a full stop
• Title of the book in italics and each important words capitalised followed by a full stop
• Location of Publication followed by a colon
• Publishing Company followed by a comma
• Year followed by full stop

Example: Chandra, Bipan. Communalism in Modern India. New Delhi: Har Anand, 1998.

Indent all lines that come after the first line of a Works Cited citation. This lets the reader know where one citation ends and the next one begins. Arrange entries alphabetically, using the last name of the author. If no author is given, alphabetize by the title, eliminating any initial A, An, or The. The first word and all major words must be capitalized.

Format for Book and Journal Article

Book with One Author: Author’s last name, First name, and Middle initial [if available]. Italicize Title. Publication Location: Publishing Company, Year. Print.

Book with two authors: First author’s last name, First name, and Middle initial [if available], Second author's First name and Last name, and Third author's First name and Last name. Italicize Title. Publication Location: Publishing Company, Year. Print.

Journal Article: Author's last name, First name, and Middle initial. "Title of Article." Italicized Title of Journal volume.issue [if available] (year): page number(s). Format.

Introduction to Citation Style Manuals

The citations in a research report must be arranged in a widely accepted uniform pattern. It will help the researcher to organise and place the research report within an academic standard. There are several style manuals, which provide guidelines to organise a research report and also arranging citations properly. The three most commonly used style manuals are:

1. MLA: Modern Language Association
2. APA: American Psychological Association
3. Chicago Manual by University of Chicago

These research style manuals provide a set of rules and instructions to the researchers to organise the research report in a standard pattern. Apart from the guidelines to citations, a research style manual provides instructions to organise the basic elements of a report like:

• The font style and font size
• Page numbering and line spacing
• Title and sub-title arrangements
• Paragraph arrangements
• Margin settings
• Rules for using various punctuation marks
• Rules for using abbreviations, tables, figures, appendix, and index

The Popular Citation Style Manuals  

MLA: It is the formatting style of the Modern Language Association. It is generally used in English and humanities. The MLA Handbook outlines a two-level citation method to provide a reference to a particular source: (i) in-text citation and (ii) Works Cited. It means when citing a source, the researcher has to include its information in two places.

APA: is the formatting style for the American Psychological Association, which is also used in social sciences. The APA style uses the author/date in-text citation with the reference list at the end of the research report.

Chicago Citation Style: It is the method established by the University of Chicago Press. It is widely used for academic writing in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. A slight modification of the Chicago style is known as Turabian style. Chicago/Turabian style features two basic documentation systems: (1) Notes-Bibliography Style and (2) Author-Date Style

Empiricist Philosophy of History

The term ‘Philosophy of History’ was coined by the French rationalist philosopher Voltaire.  The philosophy of history is a philosophical view of human destiny. Historians before the 19th century were generally indifferent to the ‘Philosophy of History’ idea. The German historian Leopold Von Ranke believed that ‘god dwells in history’. G.M. Trevelyan wrote that ‘there was no philosophy in history. Philosophy must be brought to history; it cannot be extracted from it’. E.H. Carr wrote in ‘What is History’, ‘the age of innocence and historians walked in the Garden of Eden, without a scarf of philosophy to cover them, naked and unashamed before the God of history’. All major philosophies of history, except two (the Greeco-Roman and the Medieval Church Historiography) have been shaped in the past three centuries. Hegel's philosophy of history is perhaps the most fully developed philosophical theory of history. He regards history as an intelligible process moving towards a specific condition – the realization of human freedom. 

Empiricist Philosophy of History

The term empiricism is derived from the Greek word ‘empeiria’, which means experience. The philosophy of empiricism began with the scientific methods of Sir Francis Bacon. Empiricism, in philosophy, possesses three broad views:

• All concepts originate in experience,
• All concepts are about or applicable to things that can be experienced,
• All rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience.

There are different stages of the development of the empiricist philosophy.

Classical Empiricism

Classical empiricism was dominated by the ideas of John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. Classical empiricism is characterised by a rejection of innate, inborn knowledge or concepts. John Locke, well-known as an empiricist, wrote of the mind being a tabula rasa, a “blank slate” when we enter the world. At birth we know nothing; it is only subsequently that the mind is furnished with information by experience.

Radical Empiricism

In its most radical forms, empiricism holds that all knowledge is derived from the senses. Radical empiricism means our knowledge of the world is based solely on our senses. This rejects all other knowledge claims and places experiences as the only basis of human knowledge. 

Moderate Empiricism

Moderate empiricism means our experience is based on our senses, but there are cases when our knowledge is not based on our senses. More moderate empiricists, however, allow that there may be some cases in which the senses do not ground our knowledge but hold that these are exceptions to a general rule.

Facts as Experience in History

In historical explanations, a historian uses facts to reconstruct historical events. Here facts represent the experiences of the past and thereby its interpretation allows the historian to reconstruct the past with factual experience. This method helps the historian indirectly experience the past and generate historical knowledge. The past is different from the present in every aspect. The historian should try to understand the reality of the past through the analysis of the facts. These facts allow the historian to experience the event in which he or she is studying. 

Analytical Philosophy of History

Analytic philosophy emphasizes the study of language and the logical analysis of concepts. It originated around the turn of the twentieth century with the rejection of idealism by G.E.Moore and Bertrand Russell. They used a linguistic expression based on the arguments on the “meanings” of terms and propositions.

The focused areas of study in Analytical Philosophy

• Analytic philosophy involves studies of the language in which the concepts are expressed.
• It studies the structures or forms of language or sentences and establishes logical concepts. 
• Analytic philosophy of history enquires the way in which the discipline of history discovers and understands that past.
• Its inquiry is ‘analytic’ because it critically analyses the thinking behind the ways in which historians undertake their discipline.

Language and its expressions are the primary fields in analytical philosophy. It focuses on the text and linguistic expressions of historical explanations. Analytic philosophers emphasized the empirical and scientific status of historical knowledge. There are different traditions of analytical philosophy. Analytic philosophers introduced new modes of critical evaluation of ancient texts.

Though the analytic philosophy was born in linguistic turn, later it underwent several internal micro-revolutions and passed into several phases. During the 1960s, linguistic philosophy gave way to the philosophy of language, the philosophy of language gave way to metaphysics, and this gave way to a variety of philosophical sub-disciplines.

Philosophers in the analytic tradition are deeply skeptical about the power of non-empirical reason to arrive at substantive conclusions about the structure of the world—including human history. Philosophical reasoning by itself cannot be a source of substantive knowledge about the human actions, that we call “history.” Rather, substantive knowledge about the world can only derive from empirical investigation and logical analysis. Analytic philosophers emphasized the empirical and scientific status of historical knowledge and attempted to understand this claim along the lines of the scientific standing of the natural sciences.

Speculative Philosophy of History

The speculative philosophy of history is concerned with history as a whole. It relates the past to the present and the present to the future. The basis of the speculative philosophy of history is the idea of an order or pattern in the historical process.  The speculative philosophers believe that it is possible to recognize some general scheme or design or purpose or pattern in the course of human history. The pattern is necessary to consider the historical process as a whole.

St. Augustine and the Theological Origin

Western speculation concerning the meaning of history is first derived from theological sources. It developed through the work, City of God written by St. Augustine. It proposed that history follows a linear development that is based on providential wisdom. According to St. Augustine history was guided by the divine will and the course of history is determined by forces outside human control. This consists of thinking of history “as a whole” and this employed the term ‘universal history’. This presents history as a single giant unfolding story.

After the discoveries of Charles Darwin and Sir Isaac Newton, the theological and providential interpretations were rejected in favour of the scientific approach. This is based on the idea that human nature is not been the same throughout history. Historical periods are distinct from one another. Speculative philosophy of history thus evolved from the desire to make sense of history, to find meaning in it, or at least some intelligible pattern. The rapidly changing times in history need a sense of continuity. The ultimate desire is to predict the future on the basis of identifying general forces governing history.

The themes in the speculative philosophy of history focus on:

The search for meaning or design in the flow of history: The basic idea in the speculative philosophy of history is to propose a design or pattern in the historical process. It treats the historical process of moving towards reaching a purpose. Thus the duty of the historian is to find out the pattern of this historical process.

Theories of progress in history: Speculative philosophy of history focuses on the nature of historical progress. It proposes two views of progress in history – the cyclical view and the linear view. The cyclical view of history proposes the idea of periodic cycles in the course of history. This view holds that in the historical process, one can find out a beginning or origin, stages of development, and decline. This process will repeat in the course of history. The linear view of history proposes the progress of history towards a specific purpose.

Laws of Development in History: Speculative philosophy of history looks for the laws of historical development that determine historical processes. The idea is that the course of history is determined. The search for general law of development in history is necessary to build theories about the course of history. 

Digital Sources of History

The rapid growth of information technology based on computers and the internet produced several new types of sources of historical research. These sources are collectively known as digital sources and it is varied in its type, content, and form. The important categories of digital sources are:

• Digitised copies of books and other rare documents
• Web Resources
• Digital images, Audio, and Visual Recordings

Digitisation of the printed documents gave way to a new method of its preservation. All the modern libraries and archives now have digitalised copies of their rare books and other documents. There is a number of online digital collections of books that are easily accessible from all over the world. Further, a number of online archives share a rare collection of primary documents. Digital libraries and archives provide valuable resources for historical reconstruction.

The internet-based knowledge-sharing system has produced numerous academic websites. These websites provide access to online journals, newspapers, books, popular articles, and other academic resources. Often websites are created as the depositories of rare documents. Web resources are of various types and include written words, images, audio, and visual files.

Digital images and audio and visual files are the important categories of digital sources. The widespread use of digital cameras enabled to visualization document almost everything. These visual sources provide a better understanding of different aspects of people’s life.     

Advantages of Digital Sources

The important advantage of digital sources are the three 'S' - Easy to Store, Search and Share  

• Digitization has made it possible for libraries, archives, historical societies, museums, and individuals to easily share their collections with the world.  
• Most of the web resources can be simply accessed through the ‘search’ option provided by various search engines.
• Digital sources are easy to access and share. Internet resources can be accessed from anywhere at any time.
• Digital files can be stored in digital devices, which can be easily carried.
• Digital sources like images and audio-visual sources can reflect reality more than written words. Access to images of primary source materials with descriptive data is an important feature of the digital era.
• Digital sources like maps, graphs, and statistical records are easy to verify and analyse as compared to text form.
• Digital sources help the researcher to analyse different perspectives on a particular historical event.

Problems with Digital Sources

• The bulk of online resources creates difficulty in the selection of sources.
• The researcher should have a thorough knowledge of the technological aspects of making digital sources for its analysis.
• The web resources are undergoing frequent corrections, editions, and modifications. Therefore it is difficult to find out the original version.
• Digital sources can be easily manipulated. There are several free tools for modification and alternation of digital files. Hence, establishing the authenticity and credibility of the digital source is a difficult task.

Audio Sources of History

Modernity and its way of life had produced several new types o sources for the reconstruction of the recent past. Audio sources are one of the prominent categories of this type. Audio sources are based on sound and it includes all the varieties of recorded sound. The popular categories of audio sources are:

• Interviews and Oral histories
• Radio Broadcasting
• Speeches
• Songs and Music

Interviews and Oral Histories

Interviews and Oral Histories make excellent primary sources.  In their own voice, one can listen to someone's personal recollections, opinions, or interpretations of events they were directly involved with.  Listening to a person's voice brings a person closer to what they are saying than reading a transcript.  The oral history recordings help to understand the accents and emotions and gain a better sense of someone's personality.

Radio Broadcasting as a Source of History

Radio is a powerful medium, which uses voices to connect people with their past. Early radio dramas employed actual interviews alongside researched historical scripts. English historian Paul Thompson in his work The Voice of the Past: Oral History noted that ‘old radio broadcasts have themselves become valuable documents for historians of the recent past’. As a medium of communication, radio has several inherent advantages for communicating the results and process of history. Radio programs were often focused on community development programs, which is an important source to analyse the socio-cultural life of the period.

Speeches

Recorded speeches are another important category of audio sources. These are mainly political speeches that help to understand ideological intervention and political movements. Political speeches of early leaders of the world offer a valuable record to understand global political situations.

Songs and Music

Songs and music primarily represent the aesthetic sense and leisure of a society. It forms an integral part of the cultural life of the people. The lyrics of the songs often reflect the socio-political, economic, and cultural life of the age. The musical instruments and compositions used in the songs may reflect the likes of different generations.

Uses of History

In its primary understanding, history is the study of the past through available sources. Hence it is a record of human memory, which is essential for a better understanding of the present. It is considered an indispensable subject in the complete education of man. History is one of the most comprehensive fields of study. Understanding history helps to acquire a better understanding of the past, present, and future, hence the utility and necessity of history in human life are vital. 

History – A Storehouse of Information

In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information about the past. History is all about human activities. It provides a record of the socio, political, economic, and cultural life of the people living of various ages. It reflects the changes in the way of life and each and every aspect of development. Hence, history serves as a grand library or data bank for the study of human life and development. 

History Shapes Individual, Societal and National Identity 

History provides an identity for an individual, societies, and nations. Through its linkages of the past with the present, history shapes the genealogy of social groups. History gives the account of people’s collective movements, collective sufferings, collective achievements, and all other collective actions. Thus it shapes the collective consciousness among the social group. It is noted that history created great nation-states of the world. National history plays a crucial role in promoting nationalism and patriotism.

History Reflects the Process of Change and its Forces

The study of history helps to understand the process of change from one age to another and also reveals the factors that cause change. History explains every aspect of change in human behaviour, which helps to understand the attitudes of individuals and groups. This, in fact, helps to understand the patterns of human behaviour in socio-cultural and political fields. It develops an understanding of the different forces that have shaped man's destiny and paved the way for his development in society.

History Shapes Our World

Through the lessons and teachings of the past, history shapes the world that we are living in. History carries examples of better livelihood and model societies. The study of history is thus, essential for good citizenship. History also teaches morals and values through the stories of individuals and situations. "History teaching by example" is one phrase that describes this use of the study of the past. The study of history is important because it allows one to make more sense of the current world.

History – A Source of Inspiration 

History shares the stories of human victories and achievements and thereby acts as a source of inspiration for the generations. It depicts the stories of human struggles for the creation of a better world. It gives the stories of great inventions, great leaders, and the constant human desire to improve.

History – A Guide for Better Future

History is a pathfinder of man’s future. History can offer guidance for the solution to all human problems by outlining the experiences of the past. No local, national or global issue could be grasped and tackled unless its historical background is known. For an understanding of the problems of the present day, the politicians, administrators, and diplomats seek explanations from the pages of history. It depicts the fortunes and misfortunes of the past and thereby shows the right paths toward a better future. History helps us to foresee the future. Though history cannot predict the future, the conclusions it furnished are used for practical guidance.

 

History – A Skill Trainer 

Students of history can acquire verities of skills and a broad perspective and flexibility. The study of history can help to develop research skills like critical thinking, analysis, and interpretation. A large number of intellectual values accrue from the learning of history. It sharpens memory, and develops the power of reasoning, judgment, and imagination. It cultivates the qualities of reading, analysing, criticizing, and arriving at conclusions.

History Provides Social Memory

History is a social memory; without it society will lapse into societal amnesia. History plays the same role in society as memory plays in the activity of the individual. Historical memory stores a great volume of socially useful information about events of the past. Historical memory store and transmit knowledge about events witnessed or heard about. The absence of such memory will paralyze performance and progress. No society can survive without historical consciousness. Marwick pointed out that “A society without memory and self-knowledge would be a society adrift”.

History is for Human Self Knowledge

History is for the sake of human self–knowledge. R G Collingwood says ‘the value of history is that it teaches us what man has done and thus what man is’. History is for ‘human self–knowledge’. Self-Knowledge means knowing one’s world. Knowing himself is the first step to being in the world, and also it directs his/her way of living. History imparts knowledge about the actions of human beings that have been done in the past.